Mary, Queen of Scots and her legacy in the historical realm exceed past the seventeenth century. At the end of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth century, Mary Stuart became a prominent topic in popular European media. She can be seen in novels, performances, and even poems. Many of these mediums represent Mary Stuart in a similar tone: tragedy. This blog post will discuss why there was a rise in popularity for Mary Stuart as an historical figure, as well as the way various popular mediums in the 19th century portray her and have shaped her historical narrative. This post will utilize historian Peter Burke's chapter titled "Lay History: Official and Unofficial Representations, 1800-1914" to look at four major mediums -- poetry, plays, operas, and novels -- that use Mary Stuart as a figurehead.
The nineteenth century saw a rise in historicism and the subject of studying History was becoming more professionalized. This prominent focus on professionalized History also influenced the creation of a more 'unprofessional' version produced by those who were not considered to be experts in the field. Peter Burke describes this phenomenon and labels it as "lay history." Burke attributes this creation of lay history due in part to the way average people received their information on historical topics. Burke states: "many people received their impressions of the past from the work of amateur historians, male and female, and also from novels, plays, and paintings, encyclopedias, museums and monuments."¹ With the interest of study History becoming more popularized, people were looking for mediums to learn in more entertaining ways, regardless of historical accuracy. As a result, entertainment became more important than the historical fact of an event, which also became a prominent aspect in the popular mediums that focused on Mary Stuart. This aspect of entertainment over historical fact continues into the present day -- which will be discusses in the remainder of these blog posts -- and plays a huge role in the evolution of this Queen's historical narrative.
The earliest work that this blog will discuss is Robert Burns' poem "Lament of Mary, Queen of Scots, On The Approach of Spring" (1791). The full poem can be found here. The basis of this poem is tragic. It is written from the perspective of Mary Stuart in captivity in the countryside of England. She begins writing about the springtime in the countryside but the poem turns into a solemn and tragic note as she discusses her feelings on her imprisonment by her cousin Queen Elizabeth I. The tragedy of her imprisonment can be felt in the fourth stanza of Burns' poem:
I was the Queen o'bonie France,
Where happy I hae been;
Fu'lightly raise I in the morn,
As blythe lay down at e'en:
And I'm the sov'reign of Scotland,
And mony a traitor there;
Yet here I lie in foreign bands,
And never-ending care.²
Here, Burns writes Mary as reminiscent of her old self and alludes to her captivity when stating, "Yet here I lie in foreign bands, / and never-ending care." Her imprisonment seems without an end and she yearns for the past because she had freedom. In the last three stanzas, Burns gives Mary Stuart an even more tragic voice. Burns alludes to Queen Elizabeth and paints her in a vicious light as Mary hopes to seek retribution for captivity: "My sister and my fae, / Grim Vengeance yet shall whet a sword / That thro' thy soul shall gae."³ This is important because Mary Stuart is notoriously known for her plots to overthrow Queen Elizabeth. Though this poem is set in a time before that, the reader can assume that the plots happen shortly after. This shows that the vengeance aspect of her historical narrative is becoming a large part of how people tell Mary Stuart's story. Burns also invokes sympathy for Mary in the last stanza, "And, in the narrow house of death, / Let Winter round me rave; / And the next flow'rs that deck the Spring, / Bloom on my peaceful grave!"⁴ Here, Mary yearns for her death as she does not wish to live much longer. The reader cannot help by sympathize for Mary's situation, regardless of knowing about her future plots against Elizabeth. This suggests that the later nineteenth century audience might have sympathized with Mary Stuart's narrative.
The "Lament of Mary, Queen of Scots" is entirely fictional, however the reader must have some historical knowledge to understand the deeper meanings of these lines. It is also important to note the date that this poem was published (1791). The date suggests the beginnings of the rise of popular History as well as an interest in Mary Stuart's historical narrative. Because of this poem's popularity, it can be inferred that popular History was becoming a part of popular cultural at the turn of the century. Burke attributes to the rise in popular History to the creation of encyclopedias, which could give quick information to the average person on a particular subject. In turn, this form of quick and basic information allowed for images of the past to be derived from fiction, thus creating works like Burns' poem.⁵ Poems, however, were not the only forms of fictitious historical texts. Burke also discusses how historical novels of the nineteenth century "offered their own interpretations of the past, often supporting but sometimes diverging from the views of professional historians."⁶ Historical novels often take a specific aspect of history to explain it. Often, authors of historical novels are mixed aspects of fiction to create entertainment for the reader. One of the most popular historical novels is Alexandre Dumas' novel Mary Stuart 1587 which is a part of a collection of novels titled Celebrated Crimes.
(image 1: portrait of Alexandre Dumas, found on www.britannica.com)
(image 2: Cover of Mary Stuart 1597, found on www.alexandredumasworks.com)
Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870) was one of the most popular French authors in the nineteenth century. Dumas gained his infamous reputation from writing dramas and later, historical novels. He is known for his extraordinary and captivating story-telling abilities. Some of his most famous works include historical novels The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers.⁷ Dumas published Mary Stuart 1587 in 1840 as a part of a series of historical novels titled "Celebrated Crimes".
Mary Stuart 1587 (full version located here) is a historical novel that begins on the life of Mary, Queen of Scots from her early childhood, up until her execution in 1587 in ten, short chapters. The book itself is written in an easy and comprehensive language with an exciting undertone. Much of the novel focuses on Mary Stuart's relationship with Queen Elizabeth through her reign in
Scotland and eventual abdication. Dumas intentionally focuses on their relationship to lead up to the climax of the novel: Mary's betrayal to her cousin and execution. Dumas frequently compares Mary and Elizabeth in order to gain the reader's sympathy for Mary Stuart. Though entertaining, Mary Stuart 1587 is not as accurate as it presents itself to be. The novel is full of fictitious dialogue between characters and an overwhelming sense of emotion. However, it does highlight certain major events in Mary Stuart's life. For example, Dumas includes Mary's marriage to her second husband Lord Darnley, the birth of her son, even the conspiracy against Rizzio, Mary's closest companion. Mary Stuart 1587 does present issues when discussing Mary Stuart's narrative. This book does not give a fully accurate biographical account of Mary Stuart's life. Dumas limits Mary Stuart to one thing -- her relationship to her cousin Queen Elizabeth and ultimate execution. It is the core of this historical novel that Dumas presents. But there is a reason for it. Burke explains that individuals during the nineteenth century used historical subjects associated with human interest -- or emotional appeal -- and had tragic backgrounds.⁸ Mary Stuart offers writers like Dumas the perfect opportunity to write an excitingly tragic novel that may or may not be entirely accurate. But readers are willing to overlook the fictions to be entertained. This novel further emphasizes the sympathetic nature that Mary Stuart held in nineteenth century cultural.
Historical plays were also prominent in nineteenth century popular culture. In 1800, German playwright Friedrich Schiller produced the play Maria Stuart (Mary Stuart) --located here. Schiller was an extremely popular playwright in the nineteenth century. Once an academic historian, Schiller produced plays like "Wallenstein (a trilogy 1798-9), Maria Stuart (1800), The Maid of Orleans [Joan of Arc] (1801), and William Tell (1804). ⁹ Currently, the play is in production at the Pioneer Theater Company at the University of Utah.
The play consists of 5 acts and focuses on the last few days of Mary, Queen of Scots life. It begins with her imprisonment in England where Mary yearns for her freedom. She entrusts a man named Mortimer, who agrees to send a letter to the Earl of Leicester for assistance on gaining freedom. As a result, Mary finally gets the opportunity to meet Queen Elizabeth I in person, which ends in an argument when Mary refuses to submit to Elizabeth's reign. Another problem arises when Mortimer decides to attempt to free Mary using violence, but he ultimately commits suicide when his plans are discovered. These actions cause Elizabeth to sign the death warrant, however she blames the pressure from her court to justify her actions. The warrant is then passed on to two different men who must figure out what to do with it. It goes from secretary William Davidson to Lord Burleigh, who ultimately orders Mary's execution. The end of the play consists of Elizabeth blaming the two men for Mary's death and the two men flee England. Elizabeth is left alone in the final scene, regretting her cousin's death.
(image: Mary Stuart (Erika LaVonn) and Mortimer (Jamen Nanthakuma) in the production of Mary Stuart 2019-2020 at the Pioneer Theater Company)
The play, despite being produced by an academic historian, is not accurate at all. The character Mortimer did not exist in real life. More importantly, Mary Stuart and Queen Elizabeth never met in person. The scene serves as a dramatic device for the audience and creates physical tension between the two characters. Mortimer's plan to free Mary from imprisonment is loosely based on the infamous Babington Plot, which led to Mary's execution. Though Elizabeth did sign the warrant for Mary's death, there is no physical evidence that she regretted the decision, nor did she banish anyone for it.
Maria Stuart depicts these two women in a very patriarchal image as well. Queen Elizabeth is seen as emotional and indecisive as she struggles to make a decision about Mary Stuart. Despite signing her cousin's death warrant, Elizabeth blames it on two other men who are forced to flee England. She is shown unable to handle the pressures of ruling a kingdom. Mary Stuart is also shown as dependent and naive. She entrusts Mortimer to save her life and is dependent on him for freedom, despite hardly knowing him. In comparison with the other works mentioned, this play also casts Mary Stuart in a sympathetic light and focuses on her imprisonment and execution. This play follows the theme of tragedy and separates the two Queens. It further emphasizes their strife and historical image as opposite entities. It is another example of appealing to the audience in an emotional and tragic way.
Schiller's play influenced the creation of the famous tragic opera Maria Stuarda (1835). Maria Stuarda was composed by Italian Gaetano Donizetti. Donizetti composed a number of plays based on the Tudor period in English history and the Renaissance. His operas consist of Anna Bolena (1830), Roberto Devereux (1837), and Lucrezia Borgia (1839). According the the Metropolitan Opera website, the opera first premiered in Milan, Italy at the Teatro alla Scala in 1835.¹⁰ The opera follows suit with the other mentioned works by focusing on Mary's imprisonment and execution, as well as her relationship with Queen Elizabeth -- all in two acts. The The full opera can be viewed below, preformed at the Teatro alla Scala in 2008.
Using much of Schiller's influence in the opera, Donizetti further emphasizes the contrasts between Queen Elizabeth and Mary Stuart in Maria Stuarda. Donizetti -- much like Burns, Dumas and Schiller -- present the two as rivals. The opera, however, shows them rivaling over love from Robert, Earl of Leicester. Mary Stuart's imprisonment is condensed with the "climaxing in the dramatically exciting -- but historically inaccurate -- confrontation between Mary and Elizabeth."¹¹ Cecil is presented as the opera's villain who continuously advocates for Mary's execution. Contrastly, George Talbot is shown as a figure of asylum for Mary. The opera ends with Mary Stuart heading to her execution due to her involvement in with the Babington plot dressed in all black, before shedding her coat to reveal a bright, red dress, symbolizing her historical execution with dramatic flare.
The opera presents historical inaccuracies, much like the previous works. The opera places the two Queens as rivals based on their love for the Earl of Leicester, which there is no evidence of. Instead of placing their rivalry over power and the English throne, it is transformed into a love triangle. The opera also depicts the two women meeting face-to-face and engaging in a fight. Maria Stuarda, instead of highlighting the women as two forces vying for power, shows them vying for the attentions of man in a very patriarchal way. This opera also utilizes Mary Stuart's tragic personal life to gain sympathy for her character. This is another example of popular cultural utilizing her historical past for entertainment and appeal to human interest.
These popular culture medium have effects on the way Mary Stuart's historical narrative is seen and presented to the average individual. Many people in the nineteenth century relied on these mediums to gain historical knowledge on events, as well as be entertained. This presents issues because the works discussed are mixed with historical fact and fiction. Overall, all these work characterize Mary Stuart not as her own figure, but as one that is associated and reliant on her relationship with Queen Elizabeth. They do not focus on her life before her imprisonment and execution, rather they limit her to just that time of her life. Understandably, audiences want drama when they are engaged in novels, plays and operas. The creators of these works expertly engage the audiences and give them what they want -- history and entertainment. But those aspects lead to sacrificing reality. Mary Stuart is shown as a woman forever entrapped in the binds of her cousin and a woman who was killed too young. The mediums described are the beginnings of the popular historical narrative told about Mary Stuart that follows into the next two centuries.
Endnotes:
¹ Peter Burke, "Lay History: Official and Unofficial Representations,1800-1914" in The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800-1945, ed. Stuart Macintyre, Juan Maiguashca, Attila Pók (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) pg. 115
² Robert Burns, "Lament Of Mary, Queen Of Scots, On The Approach Of Spring," Burns Country, http://www.robertburns.org/works/311.shtml
³ Burns,"Lament of Mary, Queen of Scots."
⁴ Burns, "Lament of Mary, Queen of Scots."
⁵ Burke, "Lay History",116.
⁶ Burke, "Lay History,"117.
⁷ The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Alexandre Dumas, Père.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, inc., December 2, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexandre-Dumas-pere
⁸ Burke,"Lay History,"123.
⁹ Burke,"Lay History,"118.
¹⁰ “Maria Stuarda.” Metropolitan Opera | Maria Stuarda. Accessed April 5, 2020. https://www.metopera.org/discover/synopses/maria-stuarda/.
¹¹ George Jellinek, History Through the Opera: From the Rise of Caesar to the Fall of Napoleon (London: Kahn & Averill 1994),192.